Glossary

For Bordieu, a field is a setting in which agents and their social positions are located. The position of each particular agent in the field is a result of interaction between the specific rules of the field, agent's habitus and agent's capital (social, economic and cultural). Fields may interact with each other, and are hierarchical: most are subordinate to the larger field of power and class relations.

Cultural capital can exist in the form of cultural goods (pictures, books, dictionaries, instruments, machines, etc.), which are the trace or realization of theories or critiques of these theories, problematics, etc.

postmartial residence pattern where the couple remain with their natal kin

relations through marriage

Agency is defined as the capacity of individuals (or agents) to act independently and to make their own free choices. By contrast, structure are those factors of influence (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, ability, customs, etc.) that determine or limit an agent and their decisions.

one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome

postmartial residence pattern where the couple can choose to with with or near kin of either side

people or cultures who are, owing to history, foreign to us, or whom we make foreign so as to study them with a qualified objectivity.

"science of the natural history of man," 1590s, originally especially of the relation between physiology and psychology, from Modern Latin anthropologia or coined independently in English from anthropo- + -logy. In Aristotle, anthropologos is used literally, as "speaking of man." (source).

a type of anthropology (can be from any subdiscipline) that addresses real world problems using anthropological methods and theories

there is no obvious or logical relationship between the symbol and what it represents

One of the four subfields of anthropology; the study of materials to learn about people, behaviors, cultures, and institutions, often from the past

early forms

early anthropologists (like Lewis Henry Morgan, Edward Burnett Tylor, and Herbert Spencer, who did little, if any fieldwork, to learn about other cultures, but inside relied on the first-hand accounts of explorers and missionaries to compile information about other cultures

Assyria, also called the Assyrian Empire, was a Mesopotamian kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East in the area today known as the Levant that existed as a state from perhaps as early as the 25th century BC (in the form of the Assur city-state) until its collapse between 612 BC and 609 BC — spanning the periods of the Early to Middle Bronze Age through to the late Iron Age.This vast span of time is divided into the Early Period (2500–2025 BC), Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BC), Middle Assyrian Empire (1392–934 BC) and Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC).

postmartial residence pattern where the couple moves in or near the groom's mother's brother

Babylon was the capital city of the ancient Babylonian empire, which itself is a term referring to either of two separate empires in the Mesopotamian area in antiquity. These two empires achieved regional dominance between the 19th and 15th centuries BC, and again between the 7th and 6th centuries BC. The city, built along both banks of the Euphrates river, had steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC) of the Akkadian Empire. The site of the ancient city lies just south of present-day Baghdad in modern day Iraq.

a hybrid specialization in anthropology, which combines archaeology and biological anthropology, studying ancient human remains to learn about past behaviors.

one of the subfields of anthropology that focuses on the human body, its genetic history, how it varies owing to history or environment, how it is affected by cultural practice.

the tempered form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that argues language does influence a speaker’s mind, but not to the extent that it controls how we think

A form of arboreal locomotion in which primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms.

speaking in different ways in different social settings

descent through both the mother and father

crimes that are unsolved and where there are no leads on who committed the crime for several years

relations who are related through biology

A member of the same species.

The independent evolution of features similar in form or function in two species with different ancestral origins, with the features not present in the last common ancestor of those groups. This occurs because lifeforms often develop similar solutions to the same kind of problems presented by occupying similar habitats.

lineage or descent group that collectively hold property

a full language that usually develops from a pidgin that is a mix of different languages.

The idea that if a child does not learn a language before puberty, they cannot become fluent in that language a

one of the four subdisciplines of anthropology; Cultural anthropology focuses on the diversity of behaviors and beliefs of living people

the notion that the beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that culture’s reasoning and history, and not be judged against the criteria of another culture

cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people

a legal term referring to a deceased person

The dependent variable is the factor that is influenced in some way by an independent variable.

list of characteristics of animal and human communication systems created by linguist Charles Hockett

a variation of a language

A space separating teeth of different functions. For primates especially, it is the gap between the incisors (biting teeth) and premolars and molars (grinding teeth) that accommodates large canines. Humans lack this feature.

In the context of foraging for subsistence resources, diminishing returns refers to proportionally smaller benefits derived from time and energy invested in the search and acquisition of foods.

This is the simplest and earliest method for fracturing a piece of stone to detached spalls known as flakes that have sharp edges and to produce sharp edges on the rock struck, which is known as the core.   The percussion tools used for flaking rocks were originally all made of stone, known as hammerstones.  Considerably later in human evolution, some flaking tools started to be made of wood or antler.  Such softer tools when used for direct percussion create different types of flakes that are often thinner.

Being awake and active during the daylight hours but sleeping during the nighttime. Humans like all apes and most monkeys are diurnal.

The form of long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body

the insider’s (how members of the culture) view and understanding of that culture’s practices

marriage to someone in your social group

marriage to someone outside of your social group

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression (active versus inactive) that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence — a change in phenotype without a change in genotype — which in turn affects how cells read the genes.

An epigrapher is a scholar that studies epigraphy or the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers.

A geological epoch is a time period that is a subdivision of a geological period.  For example, we are currently in the Quaternary Period of the Holocene Epoch (although some researchers have suggested that we are in a new epoch, the Anthropocene, that reflects humanity's influence on the environment of our planet).

A geologic era is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an eon into smaller units of time.

Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar in Diyala Governorate, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state in central Mesopotamia. Although situated in the Diyala Valley north-west of the main city-state of Sumer.

The interval when females are sexually receptive as controlled by specific hormones and often accompanied by changes in behavior and physiology that signal their receptive condition. In many primates these physiologic changes consist of highly visible swelling and reddening of the genital and perineal skin. Humans female lack this trait and are characterized by hidden estrus or cryptic ovulation.

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture.

written observational science which provides an account of a particular culture, society, or community.

the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them.

the perspective of the outsider (how people who are not members of that culture) view and understand that culture’s practices

This term describes a shift in the function of a trait during the course of evolution. A trait that evolved because it served one particular function, may subsequently come to serve another function. This occurs in both anatomy and behavior, including human culture.

marriage to someone outside your social or descent group

An animal that eats mainly other smaller animals and also those plant portions that are typical of a frugivore: the most nutritious reproductive and energy storage parts.  Because of the usual limited abundance of these high-quality resources, they tend to engender competition among individuals.

relations that are not through biology or marriage, but are still considered family

An animal that eats plant foliage, with young leaves and stems preferred by those primates with this herbivore pattern.  Immature vegetation is easier to chew with less hard-to-digest cellulose, tends to be more nutritious (higher energy and protein), and contain less toxic compounds.  Since leaves are an abundant resource of low value there is little or no resource competition between individuals.

the whole in the base of the skull where the brain stem passes; can be used to tell locomotive pattern (bipedal or quadrupedal)

Foraminifera (forams for short) are single-celled organisms found in all marine environments that have perforated shells commonly composed of calcium carbonate and having distinctive architecture. In death the shells settle to form thick ocean-floor sediments.

a hybrid specialization, which involves application of archaeological methods to biological anthropology in investigations of a crime scene in order to identify evidence and reconstruct crime scene, usually a murder.

when a small group of individuals from a larger population migrates to a relatively isolated location.  The small group will not contain the genetic diversity of the population as a whole. For humans this will also apply to cultural patterns.

An animal that eats mostly plant reproductive parts (flowers, fruits, nuts, and seeds), energy storage parts (roots, tubers, bulbs, corms), and shoots, especially those that are fleshy.  These high quality resources can engender resource competition among individuals in primates with this dietary pattern.

the target killing of a social groups of people because of their beliefs, culture, gender, sexuality, ability status, race, or ethnicity

the genetic make-up of an individual organism

This refers to behaviors involved in cleaning and maintaining body function and hygiene. In primates it is commonly a major social activity (also termed allogrooming) that helps animals living in close proximity to bond and reinforce social structures, family links, and build companionships. It is used in conflict resolution in some species.

This term is primarily from sociology, but is used extensively in political anthropology. Habitus In sociology, Habitus refers to the socially ingrained habits, skills and dispositions of an individual. It is the way that individuals perceive the social world around them and how they react to it. These dispositions are usually shared by people with similar backgrounds (such as social class, religion, nationality, ethnicity, education and profession). The habitus is acquired through imitation (mimesis) and is the reality in which individuals are socialized, which includes their individual experience and opportunities. Thus, the habitus represents the way group culture and personal history shape the body and the mind; as a result, it shapes present social actions of an individual.

The code is named for the sixth king of Babylon (in modern-day Iraq), Hammurabi.  He ruled from 1792 to 1750 BCE.

any seed-bearing plant that does not have a woody stem and dies down to the ground after flowering.

The idea that each culture has its own particular and unique history that is not governed by universal laws and must be understood based on its own specific cultural and environmental context, especially its historical process.

The Hittites were an Anatolian (roughly modern day Turkey) people who played an important role in establishing an empire centered on Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around 1680-1650 BCE. This empire reached its height during the mid-14th century BC under Šuppiluliuma I, when it encompassed an area that included most of Anatolia as well as parts of the northern Levant (eastern Mediterranean) and Upper Mesopotamia (modern northern Iraq).

The anthropological concept that argues the whole is greater than the sum of the biological, historical, cultural, social, historical, or material aspects of being human. All of these are interconnected and one cannot be understood without also considering the other.

Recognizing a lack of consensus definition of human or hominin, we define hominin as including all taxa with evidence of bipedalism that have emerged since the split from the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees/bonobos.

family members that live together

In vitro fertilisation is a process of fertilisation where an egg is combined with sperm outside the body

The independent variable is the one that is assumed to have a direct effect on some other factor(s) called the dependent variable(s).

A form of objectification that must be set apart because, it confers entirely original properties on the cultural capital which it is presumed to guarantee.

culturally defined relationships between persons based on descent (actual or presumed) or marriage

a diagram of relations

the law of retribution or “eye for an eye and tooth for a tooth” laws

term used to describe any form of descent from a common ancestor

one of the subdisciplines of anthropology; focuses on the study of language--how it evolved in humans, how it changed historically, and how language is used by different subgroups and in different contexts today.

or the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which argues the structure and words of a language influence how its speakers think and behave

Lipit-Ishtar, the king of Isin around 1900 BCE, who was powerful enough to proclaim himself king of Sumer and Akkad.

Behaviors that increase the fitness of offspring during their pre-reproductive age; behaviors such as feeding or carrying infants, grooming and playing with young offspring (direct investments) and other behaviors such as defense of territory or females and elimination of competitors (indirect investments).

long term, symbolically marked, sexual union and social process

Marsupials are a group of animals whose members are thought of as pouched animals and whose young ones are born partly developed instead of internally in a womb.

tracing descent through the mother

post martial residence pattern where the couple resides with the bride's kin

A form of dyadic relationship in which an individual has only one sexual partner for some interval of time such as a breading season or lifetime. Serial monogamy involves a succession of monogamous sexual relationships.

the concept that argues there is no universal system of right and wrong. What is considered “right” or “wrong” depends on the context (is relative) that that particular culture or historical time period

a building block of language; meaning bearing units

The Law of Moses, also called the Mosaic Law, primarily refers to the Torah or the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. Traditionally believed to have been written by Moses, most academics now believe they had many authors.

maternal uncle, who in some matrilineal societies has the most power

prehistoric, Indigenous inhabitants of North America who, during a 5,000-year period, constructed various styles of earthen mounds for religious, ceremonial, burial, and elite residential purposes

Myths are the stories of how various aspects of the world came to be the way they are. All societies studied by anthropologists have such stories.

The economic and social shift towards free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and away from state welfare provisions and social safety nets

postmartial residence pattern where the couple moves to a new household or location

Being awake and active when it is dark but sleeping during the day.  This trait was likely characteristic of most or all early primates but in now only retained in prosimians.

those raised in non Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, Democracies, who think of themselves as members of communities , instead of emphasizing the individual

mother, father, and their offspring

thought to be different from the group and, because of those differences, possibly inferior and even dangerous.

The allocation of resources, such as time or energy, to offspring that incurs some cost to the parent.  There is always some level of investment at pre-natal stages of life but many reproducing organisms have no or little PI in post-natal stages of life, sometimes because the parents no longer exist.  Mammals, at least females, always have PI in the post-natal stage because of obligatory lactation and feeding.  Males can skip this cost and continue further reproduction.  But often males can achieve higher fitness by offering some investment either directly (feeding, carrying, playing, etc.) or indirectly (defense of territory or individual).

living and working with while learning from the people you are studying, so as to be accepted by them and better understand their culture

This basically means that food resources are not distributed uniformly in the environment (resources are not homogeneously distributed) but tend to occur clustered in specific places (patches). Moreover these patches might have a temporal component (seasonality of occurrence) in addition to the spatial component.

tracing descent through the father

postmartial residence pattern where the couple resides with or near the groom's family

A geological period is major subdivision of geological time based on events as interpreted in rocks and stratigraphy. Each period is a sub-division of an era.

the set of observable characteristics (how an organism looks) of an organism resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

one of the building blocks of language; significant, but not meaningful sounds

a communication system that is not full languages, but communication systems with the bare minimum ability to communicate, usually for a specific context

A form of polygamy in which a female mates with two or more males at the same time.  This is quite rare among humans, but when it occurs the males are commonly brothers.

marriages that allow for more than one spouse/partner

someone who subscribes to the ideas of polygenism, the belief that human so called "races" emerged from different origins, as opposed to those who subscribe to monogenism, the idea that all "races" have a common origin

someone who is fluent in multiple languages

Both males and females mate with multiple members of the opposite sex and live in multi-male multi-female groups.  Another term for this pattern is promiscuous.

A single adult male defends a group of females from other males and, while his tenure lasts, enjoys exclusive mating access to those females.  This is sometimes referred to as a harem‐based mating system.  Primates with this pattern live often live in one-male multi-female groups, and the females tend to be related since they stay in their natal group (philopatric) and males move out upon reaching sexual maturity.

the ability to physically grasp something. All primates have prehensile hands. With the exception of humans, they all also have effective prehensile feet. The larger New World monkeys (Atelidae) have prehensile tails with sensitive, almost hairless, tactile pads on the underside distal part.

The scientific study of primates both living and extinct by conducting both field (in the wild and in zoos) and laboratory research so as to understand aspects of their evolution, anatomy, and behavior.

This refers to projection of the lower facial skeleton that houses dentition beyond some reference point such as the forehead. In primates, humans have the least prognathic face, indeed an orthognathic one, which means essentially vertical.

a stem of a plant, especially a grass, bearing flower stalks at short intervals.

a belief that race is a fundamental determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race (from Merriam Webster)

A moist, hairless pad of skin at the end of a nose. This is a characteristic of most mammals including dogs and cats. This feature is absent in primates except for prosimians (exclusive of tarsiers).

Rifting is the process by which the continental lithosphere gets "stretched;" it breaks apart or becomes separated through deep magma up-welling that pushes tectonic plates apart resulting in faulting and vulcanism.

set of behaviors expected of an individual who occupies a particular status

A ridge of bone running lengthwise along the middle top of the skull and serving as an anchor for strong muscles to work the jaw. In human evolution the loss of this feature is thought associated with dietary changes leading to the genus Homo.

a form of colonialism that seeks to replace the original population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers

Refers to anatomical differences between males and females of the same species. Primate males are usually significantly larger and more muscular than females. This is especially true of semi-terrestrial monkeys and the great apes. Humans are also sexually dimorphic.

A mode of natural selection that occurs in two distinct ways: (1) intersexual selection whereby members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate with (often female choice), and (2) intrasexual selection whereby members of the same sex compete, often ferociously, for access to members of the opposite sex (often males). Both forms of selection mean that some males have greater reproductive success than others either because they are more "attractive" for one type of fitness display or another or because they have won out against rival males in dominance contests.

A person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of good and evil spirits. This term originates from peoples of Siberia but many societies around the world have similar practitioners of divination and healing. It is common for shamans to enter a trance state, sometimes with help of hallucinogens.

the field of linguistic anthropology concerned with the context of language-- languages connections to power, gender, ethnicity, and class

Sperm competition theory argues that the number of sperm inseminated into a female is a trade-off between two opposing pressures: (1) sperm in competition with the sperm of other males favors the male inseminating more sperm; (2) yet ejaculates are costly to produce and males should economize the number of sperm inseminated.

culturally-designated position a person occupies in a particular setting

The ability to see things in three dimensions (3-D). Stereoscopic vision is what allows for true depth perception.

Ecological succession refers to long-term progression of biological communities in a given area starting with colonizing species, such as what are commonly refereed to as weeds and grasses, progressing to more slower growing species that often consist of shrubs and then trees in many settings.

arrangement whereby a woman agrees to bear a child for another person or persons

A rather small area of land cleared for cultivation by cutting and then burning vegetation. Large trees might be left or bark girdled to kill them depending on their utility.

something that refers to something else

one of the building blocks of language; the rules of language/grammar

The naming, describing, and classifying organisms into different categories on the basis of their appearance and other diagnostic characteristics as well as their evolutionary relationships. The biological sciences primarily use the Linnaean classification system for this purpose. Classification was originally based on morphology but now DNA barcoding is the gold standard (see https://ibol.org/about/dna-barcoding/).

Teferring to animals that spend most of their time on the ground rather than in the air, water, or trees. Most ground dwelling primates retreat to trees or other safe places such as rock outcrops to sleep at night.

The power of the unit of two (also called a dyad) is the minimal social unit for interaction.

racing descent through either the mother or father

or high rise terminal; raising the pitch of your voice at the end of a declarative sentence, making it sound like a question

King of Ur, in modern southern Iraq, ca. 2050 BCE.

A bone structure or organ of an organism whose function seems to have lost all or most of its original purpose in a given species.

postmartial residence pattern and marriage form among the Mouso where spouses do not live together, but remain with their natal kin and only visit each other in the evenings.

those raised in Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, Democracies. WEIRD people are highly individualistic, self-obsessed, nonconformist, and analytical.