II. Counterpoint and Galant Schemas
24
Kris Shaffer and Mark Gotham
Key Takeaways
The second species of species counterpoint sees the counterpoint line move twice as fast as the cantus firmus. This introduces the ideas of strong versus weak beats.
Strong beats are always consonant. Weak beats may be consonant or dissonant. Dissonance may occur on weak beats may arise through passing motion. Consonant weak beats connect two consonant strong beats to create a succession of 3 consonances. These can be of many types:
- consonant passing tone: two steps in the same direction to outline a third.
- substitution: leap a fourth, then step in the opposite direction.
- skipped passing tone: a third and a step in the same direction to outline a fourth.
- interval subdivision: two leaps in the same direction to divide a larger melodic interval, for example, with two thirds to make a fifth.
- change of register: a large, consonant leap (perfect fifth, sixth, or octave) from strong beat to weak beat, followed by a step in the opposite direction.
- delay of melodic progression: leap a third, then step in the opposite direction.
- consonant neighbor tone: step in one direction, then step back to the original tone.
In second-species counterpoint, the counterpoint line moves in half notes against a cantus firmus in whole notes. This 2:1 rhythmic ratio leads to two new “fundamental musical problems”—one metric and one harmonic: the differentiation between strong beats and weak beats, and the introduction of the passing-tone dissonance. The introduction of harmonic dissonance into second species adds to the variety of the musical texture. However, it brings a tension that must be balanced with consonance to promote tonal fusion, and it requires careful attention in order to maintain smoothness in and out of the dissonance.
Here are the complete examples of second-species counterpoint from Part I of Gradus ad Parnassum, annotated (as before) with the interval that the counterpoint line makes with the cantus firmus. For the complete examples from Gradus ad Parnassum as exercises, solutions, and annotations, see Gradus ad Parnassum Exercises.
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/8488187/embed
Example 1. All second-species exercises from Gradus ad Parnassum.
The Counterpoint Line
As in first species, the counterpoint line should be singable and have a good shape, with a single climax and primarily stepwise motion (with some small leaps and an occasional large leap for variety). However, because a first-species counterpoint had so few notes, in order to maintain smoothness in other aspects of the exercise, the melody frequently employed small leaps. In second species, the increase in notes and the added freedom involving the use of dissonance makes it easier to move by step without causing other musical problems. Thus, a second-species counterpoint is even more dominated by stepwise motion than in first species. If the counterpoint must leap, take advantage of the metrical arrangement to diminish the attention drawn to the leap: leap from strong beat to weak beat (within the bar) rather than from weak beat to strong beat (across the bar line) when possible. Also, because there are more notes in a second-species line, there should usually be one or two secondary climaxes—notes lower than the overall climax that serve as “local” climaxes for portions of the line. This will help the integrity of the line by ensuring that it has a coherent shape and does not simply wander around.
Beginning and Ending
Beginning a second-species counterpoint
As in first species, begin a second-species counterpoint above the cantus firmus with do [latex](\hat1)[/latex] or sol [latex](\hat5)[/latex]. Begin a second-species counterpoint below the cantus firmus with do [latex](\hat1)[/latex].
A second-species line can begin with two half notes in the first bar, or a half rest followed by a half note. Beginning with a half rest establishes the rhythmic profile more readily, making it easier for the listener to parse, so it is often preferable. It is also easier to compose. Regardless of rhythm, the first pitch in the counterpoint should follow the intervallic rules above.
Ending a second-species counterpoint
As in first species, you should end with a clausula vera: the final pitch of the counterpoint should be do [latex](\hat1)[/latex]; the penultimate note of the counterpoint should be ti [latex](\hat7)[/latex] if the cantus is re [latex](\hat2)[/latex], and re [latex](\hat2)[/latex] if the cantus is ti [latex](\hat7)[/latex].
The penultimate bar of the counterpoint can either be a whole note (making the last two bars identical to first species) or two half notes. This allows you to begin your clausula vera on either the strong beat or the weak beat of the penultimate measure.
Strong Beats
The inclusion of dissonance in a musical texture creates new musical problems that need to be addressed. Because the philosophy of species counterpoint is to present only a small number of new musical difficulties with each successive species, second-species counterpoint introduces dissonance in a very limited way.
Strong beats (downbeats) in second species are always consonant. As in first species, prefer imperfect consonances (thirds and sixths) to perfect consonances (fifths and octaves), and avoid unisons.
Because motion across bar lines (from weak beat to strong beat) involves the same kind of voice motion as first species (two voices moving simultaneously), follow the same principles as first-species counterpoint. For instance, if a weak beat is a perfect fifth, the following downbeat cannot also be a perfect fifth.
Likewise, progressions from downbeat to downbeat must follow the principles of first-species counterpoint described in the previous chapter, such as:
- Do not begin two consecutive bars with the same perfect interval.
- Do not outline a dissonant melodic interval between consecutive downbeats. (Exception: if the counterpoint leaps an octave from the strong beat to the weak beat, the leap should be followed by step in the opposite direction, making a seventh with the preceding downbeat. This is okay, since it is the result of smooth voice motion.)
- Do not begin more than three bars in a row with the same imperfect consonance.
Hidden or direct fifths/octaves between successive downbeats are fine, as the effect is weak, and diminished by the intervening note in the counterpoint.
Weak Beats
Since harmonic dissonances can appear on weak beats, a mixture of consonant and dissonant intervals on weak beats is the best way to promote variety.
Unisons were problematic in first species because they diminished the independence of the lines. However, when they occur on the weak beats of second species and are the result of otherwise smooth voice leading, the rhythmic difference in the two lines is sufficient to maintain that independence. Thus, unisons are permitted on weak beats when necessary to make good counterpoint between the lines.
Any weak-beat dissonance must follow the pattern of the dissonant passing tone, explained below. Also explained below are a number of standard patterns for consonant weak beats. Chances are high that if your weak beats do not fit into one of the following patterns, there is a problem with the counterpoint, so use them as a guide both for composing the counterpoint and for evaluating it.
These principles should help guide your use of weak-beat notes in a second-species counterpoint line. A good general practice is to start with a downbeat note, then choose the following downbeat note, and finally choose a pattern below that will allow you to fill in the space between downbeats well.
Most of these principles are used as examples in the demonstration video at the bottom of the page.
Dissonant passing tones (weak beats only)
All dissonant weak beats in second species are dissonant passing tones, so called because the counterpoint line passes from one consonant downbeat to another consonant downbeat by stepwise motion. The melodic interval from downbeat to downbeat in the counterpoint will always be a third, and the passing tone will come in the middle in order to fill that third with passing motion.
Since all dissonances in second species are passing tones, you will not leap into or out of a dissonant tone, change directions on a dissonant tone, nor write a dissonance on a downbeat.
Consonant weak beats
Unlike dissonant weak beats (of which there is only one type), there are several types of consonant weak beats available (Example 2):[1]
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- A consonant passing tone outlines a third from downbeat to downbeat, and it has the same pattern as the dissonant passing tone, except that all three tones (downbeat, passing tone, downbeat) are consonant with the cantus firmus. A consonant passing tone will always be a sixth or perfect fifth above/below the cantus.
- A substitution also outlines a third from downbeat to downbeat. However, instead of filling it in with stepwise motion, the counterpoint leaps a fourth and then steps in the opposite direction. It is called a substitution because it can substitute for a passing tone in a line that needs an extra leap or change of direction to provide variety. Like the consonant passing tone, all three notes in the counterpoint must be consonant with the cantus.
- A skipped passing tone outlines a fourth from downbeat to downbeat. The weak-beat note divides that fourth into a third and a step. Again, all three intervals (downbeat, skipped passing tone, downbeat) are consonant with the cantus.
- An interval subdivision outlines a fifth or sixth between successive downbeats. The large, consonant melodic interval between downbeats is divided into two smaller consonant leaps. A melodic fifth between downbeats would be divided into two thirds. A melodic sixth between downbeats would be divided into a third and a fourth, or a fourth and a third. Not only must all three melodic intervals be consonant (both note-to-note intervals and the downbeat-to-downbeat interval), but each note in the counterpoint must be consonant with the cantus.
- A change of register occurs when a large, consonant leap (perfect fifth, sixth, or octave) from strong beat to weak beat is followed by a step in the opposite direction. It is used to achieve melodic variety after a long stretch of stepwise motion, to avoid parallels or other problems, or to get out of the way of the cantus to maintain independence. It should be used infrequently. And as always, each note must be consonant with the cantus.
- A delay of melodic progression outlines a step from downbeat to downbeat. It involves a leap of a third from strong beat to weak beat, followed by a step in the opposite direction into the following downbeat. It is called a “delay” because it is used to embellish what otherwise is a slower first-species progression (motion by step from downbeat to downbeat).
- A consonant neighbor tone occurs when the counterpoint moves by step from downbeat to weak beat, and then returns to the original pitch on the following downbeat. If the first downbeat makes a fifth with the cantus, the consonant neighbor will make a sixth, and vice versa.
Demonstration
Example 3 is a video by Kris Shaffer illustrating the process of composing a second-species counterpoint. This video provides new information about the compositional process, as well as concrete examples of the above rules and principles.
Example 3. Video lesson on composing a second-species counterpoint.
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- For the complete set of Fux exercises, see the Gradus ad Parnassum chapter.
- The terms used here are either standard or taken from Salzer & Schachter’s Counterpoint in Composition. ↵
A type of motion where a chord tone moves by step to another tone, then moves back to the original chord tone. For example, C–D–C above a C major chord would be an example of neighboring motion, in which D can be described as a neighbor tone. Entire harmonies may be said to be neighboring when embellishing another harmony, when the voice-leading between the two chords involves only neighboring and common-tone motion (as in the common-tone diminished seventh chord).
Beat 1 of a measure, which is conducted with a downward motion.
Key Takeaways
In Western musical notation, pitches are designated by the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. After G these letter names repeat in a loop: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, etc. This loop of letter names exists because musicians and music theorists today accept what is called octave equivalence, or the assumption that pitches separated by an octave should have the same letter name. More information about this concept can be found in the next chapter, The Keyboard and the Grand Staff.
This assumption varies with milieu. For example, some ancient Greek music theorists did not accept octave equivalence. These theorists used more than seven letters of the Greek alphabet to name pitches.
Clefs and Ranges
The Notation of Notes, Clefs, and Ledger Lines chapter introduced four clefs: treble, bass, alto, and tenor. A clef indicates which pitches are assigned to the lines and spaces on a staff. In the next chapter, The Keyboard and the Grand Staff, we will see that having multiple clefs makes reading different ranges easier. The treble clef is typically used for higher voices and instruments, such as a flute, violin, trumpet, or soprano voice. The bass clef is usually utilized for lower voices and instruments, such as a bassoon, cello, trombone, or bass voice. The alto clef is primarily used for the viola, a mid-ranged instrument, while the tenor clef is sometimes employed in cello, bassoon, and trombone music (although the principal clef used for these instruments is the bass clef).
Each clef indicates how the lines and spaces of the staff correspond to pitch. Memorizing the patterns for each clef will help you read music written for different voices and instruments.
Reading Treble Clef
The treble clef is one of the most commonly used clefs today. Example 1 shows the letter names used for the lines of a staff when a treble clef is employed. One mnemonic device that may help you remember this order of letter names is "Every Good Bird Does Fly" (E, G, B, D, F). As seen in Example 1, the treble clef wraps around the G line (the second line from the bottom). For this reason, it is sometimes called the "G clef."
Example 2 shows the letter names used for the spaces of a staff with a treble clef. Remembering that these letter names spell the word "face" may make identifying these spaces easier.
Reading Bass Clef
The other most commonly used clef today is the bass clef. Example 3 shows the letter names used for the lines of a staff when a bass clef is employed. A mnemonic device for this order of letter names is “Good Bikes Don’t Fall Apart” (G, B, D, F, A). The bass clef is sometimes called the “F clef”; as seen in Example 3, the dot of the bass clef begins on the F line (the second line from the top).
Example 4 shows the letter names used for the spaces of a staff with a bass clef. The mnemonic device "All Cows Eat Grass" (A, C, E, G) may make identifying these spaces easier.
Reading Alto Clef
Example 5 shows the letter names used for the lines of the staff with the alto clef, which is less commonly used today. The mnemonic device “Fat Alley Cats Eat Garbage” (F, A, C, E, G) may help you remember this order of letter names. As seen in Example 5, the center of the alto clef is indented around the C line (the middle line). For this reason it is sometimes called a "C clef."
Example 6 shows the letter names used for the spaces of a staff with an alto clef, which can be remembered with the mnemonic device “Grand Boats Drift Flamboyantly” (G, B, D, F).
Reading Tenor Clef
The tenor clef, another less commonly used clef, is also sometimes called a “C clef,” but the center of the clef is indented around the second line from the top. Example 7 shows the letter names used for the lines of a staff when a tenor clef is employed, which can be remembered with the mnemonic device “Dodges, Fords, and Chevrolets Everywhere” (D, F, A, C, E):
Example 8 shows the letter names used for the spaces of a staff with a tenor clef. The mnemonic device "Elvis's Guitar Broke Down" (E, G, B, D) may make identifying these spaces easier.
Ledger Lines
When notes are too high or low to be written on a staff, small lines are drawn to extend the staff. You may recall from the previous chapter that these extra lines are called ledger lines. Ledger lines can be used to extend a staff with any clef. Example 9 shows ledger lines above a staff with a treble clef:
Notice that each space and line above the staff gets a letter name with ledger lines, as if the staff were simply continuing upwards. The same is true for ledger lines below a staff, as shown in Example 10:
Notice that each space and line below the staff gets a letter name with ledger lines, as if the staff were simply continuing downwards.
- The Staff, Clefs, and Ledger Lines (musictheory.net)
- Flashcards for Treble, Bass, Alto, and Tenor Clefs (Richman Music School)
- Printable Treble Clef Flash Cards (Samuel Stokes Music) (pages 3 to 5)
- Printable Bass Clef Flash Cards (Samuel Stokes Music) (pages 1 to 3)
- Printable Alto Clef Flash Cards (Samuel Stokes Music)
- Printable Tenor Clef Flash Cards (Samuel Stokes Music)
- Paced Game: Treble Clef (Tone Savvy)
- Paced Game: Bass Clef (Tone Savvy)
- Paced Game: Alto Clef (Tone Savvy)
- Paced Game: Tenor Clef (Tone Savvy)
Easy
Medium
- Worksheets in Treble Clef (.pdf)
- Treble Clef with Ledger Lines (.pdf)
- Worksheets in Bass Clef (.pdf, .pdf)
- Bass Clef with Ledger Lines (.pdf)
- Worksheets in Alto Clef (.pdf, .pdf)
- Worksheets in Tenor Clef (.pdf)
Advanced
- All Clefs (.pdf)
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