Epigenetics: A Healthy Life Starts Earlier Than You Think

• Mathers J. Diet and Epigenetics. In: Geissler C, Powers H eds. Human Nutrition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2017:579-592
• Fessele KL, Wright F. Primer in Genetics and Genomics, Article 6: Basics of Epigenetic Control. Biol Res Nurs. 2018;20(1):103-110. doi:10.1177/1099800417742967
• Ideraabdullah FY, Zeisel SH. Dietary Modulation of the Epigenome. Physiol Rev. 2018;98(2):667-695. doi:10.1152/physrev.00010.2017
• National Human Genome Research Institute Home | NHGRI
• Zeisel S. Choline, Other Methyl-Donors and Epigenetics. Nutrients. 2017;9(5):445. Published 2017 Apr 29. doi:10.3390/nu9050445
• Mahmoud AM, Ali MM. Methyl Donor Micronutrients that Modify DNA Methylation and Cancer Outcome. Nutrients. 2019;11(3):608. Published 2019 Mar 13. doi:10.3390/nu11030608
• Sales VM, Ferguson-Smith AC, Patti ME. Epigenetic Mechanisms of Transmission of Metabolic Disease across Generations. Cell Metab. 2017;25(3):559-571. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2017.02.016
• Hochberg Z, Feil R, Constancia M, et al. Child health, developmental plasticity, and epigenetic programming. Endocr Rev. 2011;32(2):159-224. doi:10.1210/er.2009-0039
• Desai M, Jellyman JK, Ross MG. Epigenomics, gestational programming and risk of metabolic syndrome. Int J Obes (Lond). 2015;39(4):633-641. doi:10.1038/ijo.2015.13
• King SE, Skinner MK. Epigenetic Transgenerational Inheritance of Obesity Susceptibility. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2020;31(7):478-494. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2020.02.009
• Mohajer N, Joloya EM, Seo J, Shioda T, Blumberg B. Epigenetic Transgenerational Inheritance of the Effects of Obesogen Exposure. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:787580. Published 2021 Dec 16. doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.787580

Weight Is the Main Nutritional Factor Influencing Fertility

• Purdue-Smithe AC, Mumford SL. Conflicting messages on diet and fertility: food for thought. Fertil Steril. 2018;110(6):1037-1038. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.08.011
• Fasshauer M, Blüher M. Adipokines in health and disease. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2015;36(7):461-470. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2015.04.014
• Francisco V, Pino J, Gonzalez-Gay MA, et al. Adipokines and inflammation: is it a question of weight?. Br J Pharmacol. 2018;175(10):1569-1579. doi:10.1111/bph.14181
• Salas-Huetos A, Bulló M, Salas-Salvadó J. Dietary patterns, foods and nutrients in male fertility parameters and fecundability: a systematic review of observational studies. Hum Reprod Update. 2017;23(4):371-389. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmx006
• Panth N, Gavarkovs A, Tamez M, Mattei J. The Influence of Diet on Fertility and the Implications for Public Health Nutrition in the United States. Front Public Health. 2018;6:211. Published 2018 Jul 31. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2018.00211
• Vahratian A. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among women of childbearing age: results from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Matern Child Health J. 2009;13(2):268-273. doi:10.1007/s10995-008-0340-6
• Gabrielsen JS, Tanrikut C. Chronic exposures and male fertility: the impacts of environment, diet, and drug use on spermatogenesis. Andrology. 2016;4(4):648-661. doi:10.1111/andr.12198
• Sengupta P, Dutta S, Krajewska-Kulak E. The Disappearing Sperms: Analysis of Reports Published Between 1980 and 2015. Am J Mens Health. 2017;11(4):1279-1304. doi:10.1177/1557988316643383
• Alesi S, Ee C, Moran LJ, Rao V, Mousa A. Nutritional Supplements and Complementary Therapies in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Adv Nutr. 2022;13(4):1243-1266. doi:10.1093/advances/nmab141
• Craig JR, Jenkins TG, Carrell DT, Hotaling JM. Obesity, male infertility, and the sperm epigenome. Fertil Steril. 2017;107(4):848-859. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.02.115

Preparing for a Healthy Pregnancy

• Moran VH, Robinson S. Pregnancy and Lactation. In: Geissler C, Powers H. Human Nutrition. 13th ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP; 2017: 337 – 355.
• Vesco KK, Lindsay K, Johnson M. Maternal Nutrient Metabolism and Requirements in Pregnancy. In: Marriott BP, Birt DF, Stallings VA, Yates AA. Present Knowledge of Nutrition, Volume 2. 11th ed. London, UK: Academic Press; 2020:  45 – 66
• Bartsch E, Medcalf KE, Park AL, Ray JG; High Risk of Pre-eclampsia Identification Group. Clinical risk factors for pre-eclampsia determined in early pregnancy: systematic review and meta-analysis of large cohort studies. BMJ. 2016;353:i1753. Published 2016 Apr 19. doi:10.1136/bmj.i1753
• Neggers YH. Trends in maternal mortality in the United States. Reprod Toxicol. 2016;64:72-76. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2016.04.001
• Hieronimus B, Ensenauer R. Influence of maternal and paternal pre-conception overweight/obesity on offspring outcomes and strategies for prevention. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2021;75(12):1735-1744. doi:10.1038/s41430-021-00920-7
• Campbell JM, McPherson NO. Influence of increased paternal BMI on pregnancy and child health outcomes independent of maternal effects: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Res Clin Pract. 2019;13(6):511-521. doi:10.1016/j.orcp.2019.11.003
• Hirshberg A, Srinivas SK. Epidemiology of maternal morbidity and mortality. Semin Perinatol. 2017;41(6):332-337. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2017.07.007

Anatomical And Physiological Changes During Pregnancy

• Vesco KK, Lindsay K, Johnson M. Maternal Nutrient Metabolism and Requirements in Pregnancy. In: Marriott BP, Birt DF, Stallings VA, Yates AA. Present Knowledge of Nutrition, Volume 2. 11th ed. London, UK: Academic Press; 2020:  45 – 66
• Napso T, Yong HEJ, Lopez-Tello J, Sferruzzi-Perri AN. The Role of Placental Hormones in Mediating Maternal Adaptations to Support Pregnancy and Lactation. Front Physiol. 2018;9:1091. Published 2018 Aug 17. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01091
• Sangavi M, Rutherford JD. Cardiovascular physiology of pregnancy. Circulation. 2014;130(12):1003-1008. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.009029Moran VH, Robinson S. Pregnancy and Lactation. In: Geissler C, Powers H. Human Nutrition. 13th ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP; 2017: 337 – 355.
• Moser G, Windsperger K, Pollheimer J, de Sousa Lopes SC, Huppertz B. Human trophoblast invasion: new and unexpected routes and functions. Histochem Cell Biol. 2018;150(4):361-370. doi:10.1007/s00418-018-1699-0
• Symonds ME, Ramsay MM. Maternal-Fetal Nutrition during Pregnancy and Lactation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2010.
• Goldstein RF, Abell SK, Ranasinha S, et al. Association of Gestational Weight Gain With Maternal and Infant Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA. 2017;317(21):2207-2225. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.3635
• Ander SE, Diamond MS, Coyne CB. Immune responses at the maternal-fetal interface. Sci Immunol. 2019;4(31):eaat6114. doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.aat6114
• Zeng Z, Liu F, Li S. Metabolic Adaptations in Pregnancy: A Review. Ann Nutr Metab. 2017;70(1):59-65. doi:10.1159/000459633
• Hans-Georg Frank. Placental Development. In: Polin RA, Abman SH, Rowitch DH, Benitz WE, Fox WW. Fetal and Neonatal Physiology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, USA: Elsevier; 2020:  101 – 113
• Moser G, Windsperger K, Pollheimer J, de Sousa Lopes SC, Huppertz B. Human trophoblast invasion: new and unexpected routes and functions. Histochem Cell Biol. 2018;150(4):361-370. doi:10.1007/s00418-018-1699-0
• Tanner HL, Dekker Nitert M, Callaway LK, Barrett HL. Ketones in Pregnancy: Why Is It Considered Necessary to Avoid Them and What Is the Evidence Behind Their Perceived Risk? [published correction appears in Diabetes Care. 2021 Apr 29;:]. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(1):280-289. doi:10.2337/dc20-2008

Nutrient Transfer During Pregnancy

• Moran VH, Robinson S. Pregnancy and Lactation. In: Geissler C, Powers H. Human Nutrition. 13th ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP; 2017: 337 – 355.
• Vesco KK, Lindsay K, Johnson M. Maternal Nutrient Metabolism and Requirements in Pregnancy. In: Marriott BP, Birt DF, Stallings VA, Yates AA. Present Knowledge of Nutrition, Volume 2. 11th ed. London, UK: Academic Press; 2020:  45 – 66
• Forbes GB. Body Composition of the Fetus. In: Human Body Composition: Growth, Aging, Nutrition, and Activity. Springer-Verlag; 1987:101-110.
• Moser G, Windsperger K, Pollheimer J, de Sousa Lopes SC, Huppertz B. Human trophoblast invasion: new and unexpected routes and functions. Histochem Cell Biol. 2018;150(4):361-370. doi:10.1007/s00418-018-1699-0
• Burton GJ, Watson AL, Hempstock J, Skepper JN, Jauniaux E. Uterine glands provide histiotrophic nutrition for the human fetus during the first trimester of pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(6):2954-2959. doi:10.1210/jcem.87.6.8563
• Sussman D, van Eede M, Wong MD, Adamson SL, Henkelman M. Effects of a ketogenic diet during pregnancy on embryonic growth in the mouse. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2013;13:109. Published 2013 May 8. doi:10.1186/1471-2393-13-109

Weight And Pregnancy

• Poston L, Harthoorn LF, Van Der Beek EM; Contributors to the ILSI Europe Workshop. Obesity in pregnancy: implications for the mother and lifelong health of the child. A consensus statement. Pediatr Res. 2011;69(2):175-180. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182055ede
• Voerman E, Santos S, Patro Golab B, et al. Maternal body mass index, gestational weight gain, and the risk of overweight and obesity across childhood: An individual participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2019;16(2):e1002744. Published 2019 Feb 11. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002744
• Goldstein RF, Abell SK, Ranasinha S, et al. Association of Gestational Weight Gain With Maternal and Infant Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA. 2017;317(21):2207-2225. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.3635
• 1. Gestational diabetes. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. December 30, 2022. Accessed March 4, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/basics/gestational.html.
• Deal BJ, Huffman MD, Binns H, Stone NJ. Perspective: Childhood Obesity Requires New Strategies for Prevention. Adv Nutr. 2020;11(5):1071-1078. doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa040

• Champion ML, Harper LM. Gestational Weight Gain: Update on Outcomes and Interventions. Curr Diab Rep. 2020;20(3):11. Published 2020 Feb 27. doi:10.1007/s11892-020-1296-1
• Neggers YH. Trends in maternal mortality in the United States. Reprod Toxicol. 2016;64:72-76. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2016.04.001
• Collier AY, Molina RL. Maternal Mortality in the United States: Updates on Trends, Causes, and Solutions. Neoreviews. 2019;20(10):e561-e574. doi:10.1542/neo.20-10-e561
• Reynolds R, Stirrat L. Effects of maternal obesity on early and long-term outcomes for offspring. Research and Reports in Neonatology. 2014:43. doi:10.2147/rrn.s46783
• Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL. Weight Gain during Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2009. 
• Catalano PM, Shankar K. Obesity and pregnancy: mechanisms of short term and long term adverse consequences for mother and child. BMJ. 2017;356:j1. Published 2017 Feb 8. doi:10.1136/bmj.j1
• Hirshberg A, Srinivas SK. Epidemiology of maternal morbidity and mortality. Semin Perinatol. 2017;41(6):332-337. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2017.07.007
• Hoyert DL. Maternal mortality rates in the United States, 2021. NCHS Health E-Stats. 2023.
  DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.15620/cdc:124678.

Nutrition Recommendations for Pregnant Women

• Moran VH, Robinson S. Pregnancy and Lactation. In: Geissler C, Powers H. Human Nutrition. 13th ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP; 2017: 337 – 355.
• Vesco KK, Lindsay K, Johnson M. Maternal Nutrient Metabolism and Requirements in Pregnancy. In: Marriott BP, Birt DF, Stallings VA, Yates AA. Present Knowledge of Nutrition, Volume 2. 11th ed. London, UK: Academic Press; 2020:  45 – 66
• Marshall NE, Abrams B, Barbour LA, et al. The importance of nutrition in pregnancy and lactation: lifelong consequences. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2022;226(5):607-632. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2021.12.035
• Gibson RA, Muhlhausler B, Makrides M. Conversion of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs), with a focus on pregnancy, lactation and the first 2 years of life. Matern Child Nutr. 2011;7 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):17-26. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00299.x
• Most, J., Dervis, S., Haman, F., Adamo, K. B., & Redman, L. M. (2019). Energy Intake Requirements in Pregnancy. Nutrients, 11(8), 1812. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11081812
• Mijatovic-Vukas J, Capling L, Cheng S, et al. Associations of Diet and Physical Activity with Risk for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2018;10(6):698. Published 2018 May 30. doi:10.3390/nu10060698
• Nutrition Recommendation For Pregnant WomenAmati F, Hassounah S, Swaka A. The Impact of Mediterranean Dietary Patterns During Pregnancy on Maternal and Offspring Health. Nutrients. 2019 May 17;11(5):1098. doi: 10.3390/nu11051098. PMID: 31108910; PMCID: PMC6566342.
• Marshall NE, Abrams B, Barbour LA, et al. The importance of nutrition in pregnancy and lactation: lifelong consequences. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2022;226(5):607-632. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2021.12.035

Healthy Eating During Pregnancy Is Difficult For Some Women

• Vesco KK, Lindsay K, Johnson M. Maternal Nutrient Metabolism and Requirements in Pregnancy. In: Marriott BP, Birt DF, Stallings VA, Yates AA. Present Knowledge of Nutrition, Volume 2. 11th ed. London, UK: Academic Press; 2020:  45 – 66
• Body C, Christie JA. Gastrointestinal Diseases in Pregnancy: Nausea, Vomiting, Hyperemesis Gravidarum, Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease, Constipation, and Diarrhea. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2016;45(2):267-283. doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2016.02.005
• Choo E, Dando R. The Impact of Pregnancy on Taste Function. Chem Senses. 2017;42(4):279-286. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjx005
• ACOG guidelines at a glance: Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Contemporary OB/GYN. https://www.contemporaryobgyn.net/view/acog-guidelines-glance-nausea-and-vomiting-pregnancy. Accessed February 3, 2023.
• Coad J, Al-Rasasi B, Morgan J. Nutrient insult in early pregnancy. Proc Nutr Soc. 2002;61(1):51-59. doi:10.1079/pns2001136
• Cameron EL. Pregnancy and olfaction: a review. Front Psychol. 2014;5:67. Published 2014 Feb 6. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00067
• Sunderland, E.M., Krabbenhoft, D.P., Moreau, J.W., Strode, S.A., and Landing, W.M., 2009, Mercury sources, distribution, and bioavailability in the North Pacific Ocean–Insights from data and models: Global Biogeochemical Cycles, v. 23, no. 2, p. 1-14, GB2010, doi:10.1029/2008GB003425.

Davenport MH, Nesdoly A, Ray L, Thornton JS, Khurana R, McHugh TF. Pushing for change: a qualitative study of the experiences of elite athletes during pregnancy. Br J Sports Med. 2022;56(8):452-457. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2021-104755